Friday, June 3, 2011

pergumulan islam dan budaya sasak (mengarifi fiqh islam wetu telu)

Senin, 08 Desember 2008

Lombok adalah potret sebuah mozaik. Ada banyak warna budaya dan nilai menyeruak di masyarakatnya. Mozaik ini terjadi antara lain karena lombok masa lalu adalah merupakan objek perebutan dominasi berbagai budaya dan nilai. Antara sasak (suku dominan di Lombok) yang pribumi yang harus berhadapan pula dengan pengaruhnya Hindu Bali yang dominan di Lombok Barat dan pengaruh Islam Jawa yang kuat ekspansinya di Lombok Tengah dan Lombok Timur.[1]

Dari segi geografis, Lombok juga mozaik dari berbagai kondisi. Lombok Barat (sekarang terbagi menjadi Kab. Lombok Barat dan Kotamadya Mataram) adalah daerah yang dikenal paling subur. Karenanya, di masa lalu Lombok Barat menjadi salah satu sasaran Bali (tepatnya Kerajaan Karang Asem) dalam mengembangkan pengaruhnya. Tak aneh, kalau di daerah ini Pura-Pura tempat sakral bagi persembahyangan kaum Hindu masih banyak dijumpai. Orang Hindu dari Ampenan, Mataram dan Cakranegara datang ke Lombok Barat untuk melakukan ritual keagamaan.
Dua kawasan lainnya, yakni Lombok Tengah dan Lombok Timur juga diwarnai kondisi yang berbeada. Lombok Tengah adalah daerah miskin tanahnya kurang subur. Sedangkan Lombok Timur terhitung sedikit lebih subur jika dibanding Lombpok Tengah karena kawasannya yang terletak di dataran tinggi Gunung Rinjani (Gunung tergolong Merapi aktif di Lombok). Dua kawasan inilah yang di masa lalu menjadi benteng Islamisasi kerajaan Islam Jawa di kawasan timur nusantara. [2]
Pengaruh Kerajaan inilah yang kemungkinan menyebabkan Islam menjadi agama mayoritas suku asli Lombok sekarang ini. Tetapi klaim ini masih perlu diuji kembali, karena masuknya Islam di Lombok belum di ketahui secara pasti. Akan tetapi diperkirakan pada abad ke-16 yang di bawa oleh Sunan Prapen, Putera dari Sunan Giri, salah seorang Wali Songo di Jawa.
Dalam perkembangan selanjutnya, Islam merupakan dan menjadi sebuah faktor utama dalam masyarakat Lombok. Hampir 95 % dari penduduk kepulauan itu adalah orang Sasak dan hampir semuanya adalah muslim. Seorang etnografis bahkan jauh mengatakan bahwa “menjadi Sasak berarti menjadi muslim”. Meskipun pernyataan ini tidak seluruhnya benar (karena pernyataan ini mengabaikan popularitas Sasak Boda),[3] sentimen-sentimen itu dipegangi bersama oleh sebagian besar penduduk Lombok karena identitas Sasak begitu erat terkait dengan identitas mereka sebagai muslim.
Bila lombok dicap sebagai “sebuah pulau dengan 1000 masjid” yang mungkin meremehkan keberadaan sejumlah masjid kecil di Pulau tersebut, pesannya adalah jelas. Lombok sangat terkenal di Indonesia sebagai sebuah tempat di mana Islam diterima secara serius dan tipe Islam yang dipraktekkan adalah pada umumnya adalah agak kaku dan bentuknya ortodoks bila dibandingkan dengan di daerah lain di negeri ini.[4] Islam sebagaimana ia di praktekkan dan di pahami di Lombok menampilkan sejumlah variasi yang signifikan. Dalam tradisi keislaman masyarakat Sasak akan ditemukan dua varian Islam yaitu “Islam Wetu Telu ” dan “Islam Waktu Lima ”.[5]
Wetu Telu adalah orang sasak yang, meskipun mengaku sebagai muslim, masih sangat percaya terhadap ketuhanan animistik leluhur (ancestral animistic deitis) maupun benda-benda antropomorfis (anthropomorphised inanimate objects). Dalam hal itu mereka adalah panteis. Sebaliknya, waktu lima adalah orang muslim sasak yang mengikuti ajaran syari’ah secara lebih keras sebagaimana diajarkan oleh al-Qur’an dan Hadis. Mengikuti dikotomi Geertz dalam Religion of Java, agama wetu telu lebih mirip dengan Islam abangan yang sinkretik, walaupun waaktu lima tidaklah seperti bentuk Islam santri.[6]
Yang unik dari praktik keagamaan atau ibadah Wetu Telu adalah adanya perbedaan tata cara ibadah yang berbeda-beda antara daerah satu dengan lainnya. Di Sembalun daerah dingin Leren Gunung Rinjani (Lombok Timur), mereka hanya menjalankan solat Ashar pada

Islam Sasak (Islam Wetu Telu): Wujud Dialektika Islam Dengan Budaya Sasak
Agama sasak atau lebih spesifik lagi Islam sasak merupakan cermin dari pergulatan agama lokal atau tradisional berhadapan dengan agama dunia yang universal dalam hal ini Islam. Seperti yang terjadi di Bayan (Lombok), [7] Islam Wetu Telu (Islam Lokal) yang banyak dipeluk oleh penduduk Sasak asli dianggap sebagai “tata cara keagamaan Islam yang salah (bahkan cenderung syirik)” oleh kalangan Islam Waktu lima, sebuah varian Islam universal yang dibawa oleh orang-orang dari daerah lain di Lombok. Tak pelak, Islam waktu lima sejak awal kehadirannya disengaja untuk melakukan misi atau dakwah Islamiyah terhadap kalangan Wete Telu.
Secara sederhana barangkali dapat dikatakan bahwa Wetu Telu merupakan sejenis Islam yang dijalankan dengan tradisi-tradisi lokal dan adat sasak. Varian Islam ini lebih mirip dengan Islam abangan atau Islam Jawa di Jawa, seperti yang ditulis Mark Woodward dalam buku “Islam Jawa: Kesalehan Normatif versus Kebatinan”.[8] Dalam agama wetu Telu, yang paling menonjol dan sentral adalah pengetahuan tentang lokal, tentang adat, bukan pengetahuan tentang sebagai rumusan doktrin yang datang dari Arab.Akan tetapi juga bukan tidak menggunakan Islam sama sekali, dalam doa-doa, temapat peribadatan masjid dan beberapa praktek ibadah lain, merupakan introduksi keislaman mereka.
Penyebutan istilah Wetu Telu mempunyai perspektif yang berbeda-beda. Komunitas Waktu Lima menyatakan bahwa Wetu Telu sebagai waktu tiga (tiga:telu) dan mengaitkan makna ini dengan reduksi seluruh ibadah Islam menjadi tiga. Orang Bayan[9] sebagai penganut terbesar Islam Wetu Telu ini, menolak penafsiran semacam itu. Pemangku Adatnya mengatakan bahwa, term wetu sering dikacaukan dengan waktu. Wetu berasal dari kata “metu” yang berarti “muncul” atau “datang dari”. Sedangkan “telu” artinya “tiga”. Secara simbolis makna ini mengungkapkan bahwa semua makhluk hidup muncul melalui tiga macam sistem reproduksi, yaitu melahirkan (disebut menganak), bertelur (disebut menteluk) dan berkembang biak dari benih (disebut juga mentiuk). Term Wetu Telu juga tidak hanya menunjuk kepada tiga macam sistem reproduksi, tetapi juga menunjuk pada kemahakuasaan Tuhan yang memungkinkan makhluk hidup untuk hidup dan mengembangkan diri melalui mekanisme reproduksi tersebut.[10] Sumber lain menyebutkan bahwa ungkapan Wetu Telu berasal dari bahasa Jawa yaitu Metu Saking Telu yakni keluar atau bersumber dari tiga hal: Al-Qur’an, Hadis dan Ijma. Artinya, ajaran-ajaran komunitas penganut Islam Wetu Telu bersumber dari ketiga sumber tersebut.[11]
Komunitas Islam Wetu Telu ini dalam perjalanannya mulai terdesak sedikit demi sedikit oleh arus modernitas, ortodoksisme Islam dan “serangan” dakwah terus menerus yang dilakukan oleh Islam Waktu Lima ( jenis Islam puritan yang ada di Lombok), serta implikasi massif dari kebijakan politik terutama proyek transmigrasi lokal ke kawasan adat mereka.[12] Mengapa selalu termarginalkan nasib keyakinan Islam yang bernuansa lokal? Bukankah ini justru bukti pluralitas keagamaan dalam Islam sendiri, yang menunjukkan keramahannya terhadap budaya lokal.Padahal beralihnya Orang Sasak dari Boda (sinkretisme Hindu-Budha) menjadi Islam, kemudian dari muslim sinkretis dan nominal –disebut Wetu Telu- menjadi Islam yang sempurna –Waktu Lima- memperlihatkan dinamisme kultural dalam cara Islam disebarkan, kemudian diserap, diakomodasi dan diekspresikan di Indonesia. Dinamisme kultural juga melatari fakta bahwa aktifitas penyebaran dan penanaman ajaran Islam merupakan proses panjang dan berkesinambungan dalam antagonisme dan asimilasi tiada henti.
Lepas dari berbagai stigma yang dilekatkan pada Islam lokal (seperti Jawa dan Sasak) ada baiknya menyimak pendapat Eickelman bahwa melihat Islam lokal dengan melepas kaitannya dengan Islam normatif adalah sebuah pandangan yang gagal melihat fakta betapa kebanyakan kaum muslim menjadikan normativitas Islam sebagai esensi untuk memaknai praktik dan keyakinan Islamnya. Dalam konteks ini,adalah menarik melihat penolakan Braten terhadap pandangan Geertz. Braten mengawalinya dengan sebuah penelitian di salah satu desa yang dikenal kuat Islamnya di wilayah Jawa, tepatan di Desa Batasan, kabupaten Semarang. Desa tersebut terkenal yang sangat fanatik Islamnya terutama NU. Berdasarkan spirit harmoni yang membentuk sikap hidup masyarakat Jawa, Braten menemukan bahwa dakwah Islam sama sekali tidak dilakukan dengan melangsungkan oposisi terhadap tradisi lokal. Sekali lagi bahwa ini bukan dengan mengorbankan Islam atau mengorbankan tradisi, tapi mewarnai tradisi dengan spirit Islam. Bacaan Bismillah menjadi pembuka bagi seluruh akatifitas kemasyarakatan. Masyarakat bahkan memiliki caranya sendiri untuk tetap menjaga harmoni itu. Mereka tahu bahwa adat tetap dilakukan dengan tanpa mencederai jiwa Islam. Sementara Islam dilakukan dengan tetap menjaga harmoni tradisi masyarakat. Oleh sebab itu, yang terpenting bahwa tuduhan bahwa praktik-praktik Islam lokal, seperti Jawa dan Sasak, semata-mata bersifat animis-hindu-budhis dan tidak memiliki landasannya secara normatif dalam doktrin Islam, patut dipertanyakan ulang. Apa yang selama ini dianggap sebagai kepercayaan dan praktik Islam lokal nyatanya juga dipraktikkan oleh banyak kaum muslim di belahan dunia lain. Untuk konteks nusantara, ia hadir mengemuka bersama dengan proses panjang islamisasi ini sendiri.[13]

Aspek Lokalitas dalam Fiqh Islam
Salah satu disiplin keilmuan Islam yang menjadi fakta sejarah bagaimana doktrin Islam mengaprisiasi budaya lokal adalah ilmu fiqih. Sebagai institusi pembebas, fiqh harus dimaknai proses bukan produk monumental. Hukum Islam atau fiqh, memiliki karakteristik yang jauh berbeda dengan hukum dalam pengertian ilmu hukum modern. Hukum Islam dikembangkan berdasarkan wahyu di samping pemikiran manusia dan juga diwarnai oleh ciri kelokalan di samping ciri keuniversalan. Dengan demikian, fiqh dikatakan sebagai hasil akhir dari suatu proses dialogis dan dialektis antara pesan-pesan samawi (normativitas) dengan kondisi aktual bumi (historisitas). Aturan-aturan yang terbukukan dalam berbagai kitab fiqh tidak dapat dilepaskan dari pengaruh cara pandang manusia, baik secara pribadi maupun sosial. Dengan demikian, selain sarat dengan nilai teologis, fiqh juga memiliki watak sosiologis.[14]
Dengan penjelasan di atas, fiqh berarti dapat membentuk dan dibentuk oleh masyarakat. Hubungan yang saling mengisi ini menunjukkan betapa dominan muatan kultural dalam fiqh itu. Kuatnya muatan kultural itu dapat dibuktikan dengan keterbukaan fiqh untuk menerima konsep ‘urf, istihsan serta istislah sebagai bagian dari sumber-sumber fiqh.[15]
Ada beberapa bukti kesejarahan lainnya untuk menunjukkan bagaimana kondisi sosial budaya memberikan pengaruh kuat terhadap pembentukan fiqih. Adanya qaul jadid dari Imam Syafi’i yang dikompilasikan setelah sampainya ia di Mesir, ketika dikontraskan dengan qaul qadim-nya yang dikompilasikan di Irak, merefleksikan adanya pengaruh dari tradisi adat kedua negeri yang berbeda.[16] Imam Malik percaya bahwa aturan adat dari suatu negeri harus dipertimbangkan dalam memformulasikan suatu ketetapan, walaupun ia memandang adat atau ‘amal ahl al-Madinah sebagai variabel yang paling otoritatif dalam teori hukumnya, merupakan bukti lain dari kuatnya pengaruh kultur setempat tidak pernah dikesampingkan oleh para juris muslim dalam usahanya untuk membangun hukum. Bagi Malik ‘Amal ahli Madinah ini lebih kuat dari hadis Ahad (transmisi tunggal). “Al-‘amal atsbat min al-hadits”, katanya. Pendirian Malik yang menghargai tradisi lokal Madinah tersebut terus dipertahankan meski banyak ulama yang menentangnya dan meski harus berhadapan dengan rezim yang berkuasa. Pada suatu saat, Khalifah Abbasiyah Abu Ja’far al-Manshur, memintanya agar kitab Muwattha’ yang menghimpun hadits-hadits Nabi karyanya dijadikan sumber hukum positif yang akan diberlakukan diseluruh wilayah Islam. Imam Malik menolak, katanya: “ Anda tahu bahwa diberbagai wilayah negeri ini telah berkembang berbagi tradisi hukum sesuai dengan tuntutan kemaslahatan setempat. Biarkan masyarakat memilih sendiri panutannya. Saya kira tidak ada alasan untuk menyeragamkannya. Tidak ada seorangpun yang berhak secara eklusif mengklaim kebenaran atas namaTuhan”.[17]
Dalam konteks Indonesia lahirnya KHI (Kompilasi Hukum Islam) yang didalamnya juga diadopsi sistem gono-gini merupakan bentuk dialektika hukum islam dengan tradisi yang berkembang di Indonesia. Ini merupakan cita-cita lama dari para pemikir hukum islam di Indonesia yang menginginkan adanya fiqh yang berkepribadian Indonesia, seperti Hasbi Ash-Shiddieqi ataupun Hazairin.[18]
Fenomena yang disebut terakhir ini menunjukkan bahwa fiqh Islam adalah hukum yang hidup dan berkembang, yang mampu bergumul dengan persoalan-persoalan lokal yang senantiasa meminta etik dan paradigma baru. Keluasan hukum Islam adalah satu bukti dari adanya ruang gerak dinamis itu. Ia merupakan implementasi obyektif dari doktrin Islam yang meskipun berdiri di atas kebenaran mutlak dan kokoh, juga memiliki ruang gerak dinamis bagi perkembangan, pembaharuan dan kehidupan sesuai dengan fleksibilitas ruang dan waktu.
Besarnya adanya akulturasi timbal balik antara Islam dan budaya lokal diakui juga dalam suatu kaedah atau ketentuan dasar dalam ilmu usul al-fiqh, bahwa “adat itu dihukumkan” (al-adah muhakkamah), atau lebih lengkapnya, “ Adat adalah syari’ah yng dihukumkan” (al-adah syari’ah muhakkamah). Artinya, adat dan kebiasaan suatu masyarakat, yaitu budaya lokalnya, adalah sumber hukum dalam Islam. [19]
Islam sebagai agama yang universal yang melintasi batas ruang dan waktu kadangkala bertemu dengan tradisi lokal yang berbeda-beda. Ketika Islam bertemu dengan tradisi lokal, wajah Islam berbeda dari tempat satu dengan lainnya. Menyikapi masalah ini ada dua hal yang penting disadari. Pertama, Islam itu sebenarnya lahir sebagai produk lokal yang kemudian diuniversalisasikan dan ditransendensi, sehingga kemudian menjadi universal. Dalam konteks arab, yang dimaksud dengan Islam sebagai produk lokal adalah Islam yang lahir di Arab, tepatnya daerah Hijaz, dalam situasi Arab dan pada waktu itu ditujukan sebagai jawaban terhadap persoalan-persoalan yang berkembang disana. Islam arab tersebut terus berkembang ketika bertemu dengan budaya dan peradaban Persia dan Yunani, sehingga kemudian Islam mengalami proses dinamisasi kebudayaan dan peradaban.
Kedua, walaupun kita yakin bahwa Islam itu wahyu Tuhan yang universal, yang gaib, namun akhirnya ia dipersepsi oleh sipemeluk sesuai dengan pengalaman, problem, kapasitas, intelektual, sistem budaya, dan segala keragaman masing-masing pemeluk didalam komunitasnya. Dengan demikian, memang justru kedua dimensi ini perlu disadari yang disatu sisi Islam sebagai universal, sebagai kritik terhadap budaya lokal, dan kemudian budaya lokal sebagai bentuk kearifan (local wisdom) masing-masing pemeluk di dalam memahami dan menerapkan Islam itu.
Berkaitan dengan itu, Syah Waliyullah al-Dahlawi, pemikir Islam India mengemukakan adanya Islam universal dan Islam lokal. Ajaran tentang Tauhid (pengesaan Tuhan) adalah universal yang harus menembus batas-batas geografis dan kultural yang tidak dapat ditawar-tawar lagi. Sementara itu ekspresi kebudayaan dalam bentuk tradisi, cara berpakaian, arsitektur, sastra dan lain-lain memiliki muatan lokal yang tidak selalu sama.




DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Abdullahi Ahmed an-Na’im, Islam dan Negara Sekuler: Menegosiasikan Masa Depan Syari’ah (Bandung: Mizan, 2007).
Fawaizul Umam dkk, Membangun Resistensi. Merawat Tradisi: Modal Sosial Komunitas Wetu Telu (Mataram: LkiM, 2007)
Fawaizul Umam,Dari Terma ke Stigma: Geneologi Islam Weru Telu Lombok NTB, Jurnal Istiqro’, Jurnal Penelitian Direktorat Perguruan Tinggi Agama Islam, Volume 04, Nomor 01, 2005
[1] Balairung No. 26/TH.XII/1997, hlm. 76.
[1] Solichin Salam, Lombok Pulau Perawan (Jakarta: Kuning Mas, 1992), hlm. 8-12.
Erni Budiwanti,”The Impact of Islam on the Religion of the Sasak in Bayan, West Lombok” dalam Kultur Volume I, No.2/2001/hlm. 30.
[1] John Ryan Bartholomew, Alif Lam Mim: Kearifan Masyarakat Sasak, terj. Imron Rosyadi (Yogyakarta: Tiara wacana, 2001), hlm. 86.
[1] Erni Budiwanti, Islam Sasak; Wetu Telu Versus Waktu Lima, terj. Noorcholis dan Hairus Salim (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 2000), hlm. 1.
Mark R. Woodward, Islam Jawa: Kesalehan Normatif versus Kebatinan, terj. Hairus Salim HS (Yogyakarta: LkiS, 2004).
[1] Penganut Islam Wetu Telu tidak hanya di Bayan (Lombok Barat), tetapi juga di daerah lombok Tengah (Sengkol).Lihat Asnawi, Respon Kultural Masyarakat Sasak Terhadap Islam, Ulumuna, Volume IX Edisi 15 Nomor 1 Januari-Juni 2005, hlm. 11. Lihat Juga Fathurrahman Zakaria, Mozaik Budaya Orang Mataram (Mataram: Yayasan Sumurmas Al-Hamidy, 1998),hlm. 158.
Zaki Yamani Athar, Kearifan Lokal Dalam Ajaran Islam Wetu Telu di Lombok, Ulumuna, Volume IX Edisi 15 Nomor 1 Januari-Juni 2005, hlm. 76.
[1] Ahmad Zainul Hamdi, “Islam Lokal; Ruang Perjumpaan Universalitas dan Lokalitas” Ulumuna, Volume IX Edisi 15 Nomor 1 Januari-Juni 2005, hlm. 122-123.
[1] Amin Syukur, “Fiqh dalam Rentang Sejarah”, dalam Noor Ahmad dkk, Epistemologi Syara’; Mencari Format Baru Fiqh Indonesia (Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar, 2000), hlm. X.
Marzuki Wahid dan Rumadi, Fiqh Madzhab Negara (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 2001), hlm. 81.
[1] Ratno Lukito, Pergumulan Antara Hukum Islam Dan Adat di Indonesia (Jakarta: INIS, 1998),
Imam Syafi’i baca Jaih Mubarok, Modifikasi Hukum Islam; Studi Tentang Qawl Qadim dan Qawl Jadid (Jakarta: Raja Grafindo Persada, 2002).
Husein Muhammad, Spiritualitas Kemanusiaan Perspektif Islam Pesantren (Yogyakarta: Pustaka Rihlah, 2006), hlm.159.
[1] Nurcholish Madjid, “Islam dan Budaya Lokal: Masalah Akulturasi Timbal Balik”, dalam Islam Doktrin dan Peradaban (Jakarta: Paramadina, 1992) hlm. 542-554.
Yudian Wahyudi, Hasbi’s Theory of Ijtihad in the Context of Indonesian Fiqh (Yogyakarta: Nawesea, 2007)
Yudian W. Asmin, Catatan Editor, dalam Yudian (ed) “Ke Arah Fiqh Indonesia”, (Yogyakarta: Forum Studi Hukum Islam, 1994).

[1] Balairung No. 26/TH.XII/1997, hlm. 76.
[2] Solichin Salam, Lombok Pulau Perawan (Jakarta: Kuning Mas, 1992), hlm. 8-12.
[3] Boda merupakan kepercayaan asli orang Sasak sebelum kedatangan pengaruh asing. Orang Sasak pada waktu itu, yang menganut kepercayaan ini, disebut Sasak Boda. Agama Sasak Boda ini ditandai oleh Animisme dan Panteisme. Pemujaan dan Penyembahan roh-roh leluhur dan berbagai dewa lokal lainnya merupakan fokus utama dari praktek keagamaan Sasak Boda. Lihat Erni Budiwanti,”The Impact of Islam on the Religion of the Sasak in Bayan, West Lombok” dalam Kultur Volume I, No.2/2001/hlm. 30.
[4] Kebenaran reputasi ini bisa kita uji dengan melihat praktik keagamaan di Lombok. Menurut pengamatan penulis selama ini ternyata siang-malam penuh dengan ritual keagamaan (apalagi pada bulan-bulan penting). Siang hari di setiap sudut desa mesti kita akan menemukan Tuan Guru sedang memberikan pengajian keagamaan, sedangkan pada malam hari, dari masjid-masjid maupun Langgar-Langgar terdengar sekelompok orang (jamaah) baca Hizib, Barzanji maupun amalan-amalan sunnah lainnya.
[5] John Ryan Bartholomew, Alif Lam Mim: Kearifan Masyarakat Sasak, terj. Imron Rosyadi (Yogyakarta: Tiara wacana, 2001), hlm. 86.
[6] Erni Budiwanti, Islam Sasak; Wetu Telu Versus Waktu Lima, terj. Noorcholis dan Hairus Salim (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 2000), hlm. 1.
[7] Secara geografis, pulau Lombok terletak antara dua pulau yaitu sebelah barat berbatasan dengan Pulau Bali (daerah wisata), sedangkan sebelah timur berbatasan dengan Pulau Sumbawa, yang terkenal dengan “Susu kuda liar” dan “Madu Sumbawa”. Penduduk asli Lombok adalah susu sasak yang merupakan kelompok etnik mayoritas Lombok (90 %), sisanya adalah Bali, Sumbawa, Jawa, Arab, Cina dll. Dari segi agama mayoritas beragama Islam (waktu lima dan Wetu Telu), Hindu,Budha dan Kristen. Erni Budiwanti, Islam Sasak:Wetu Telu Versus Waktu Lima (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 2000), hlm.6
[8] Corak Islam Jawa adalah corak keislaman yang sejak dini ditanam di Jawa oleh para Wali. Para wali menyemai orientasi keislaman yang memadukan antara syari’ah dan tasawuf. Orientasi inilah yang memungkinkan kalangan Islam tradisional Jawa mampu mengapresiasi lokalitas tanpa harus mengkhianati prinsip dasar Islam. Karena itu, maka tidak mengherankan jika Woodward kecele ketika melakukan studi tentang Islam Jawa. Karena pengaruh wacana dominan bahwa Islam Jawa sangat dipengaruhi Hindu, maka salah satu persiapan penting yang ia lakukan sebelum melakukan penelitian di Jawa adalah mempelajari doktrin-doktrin agama Hindu. Namun apa yang terjadi? Dia sama sekali tidak menemukan bukti bahwa apa yang dituduhkan selama ini terhadap Islam Jawa sebagai warisan Hindu bisa ditemukan dalam ajaran-ajaran skriptualis Hinduisme. Lihat Mark R. Woodward, Islam Jawa: Kesalehan Normatif versus Kebatinan, terj. Hairus Salim HS (Yogyakarta: LkiS, 2004).
[9] Penganut Islam Wetu Telu tidak hanya di Bayan (Lombok Barat), tetapi juga di daerah lombok Tengah (Sengkol).Lihat Asnawi, Respon Kultural Masyarakat Sasak Terhadap Islam, Ulumuna, Volume IX Edisi 15 Nomor 1 Januari-Juni 2005, hlm. 11. Lihat Juga Fathurrahman Zakaria, Mozaik Budaya Orang Mataram (Mataram: Yayasan Sumurmas Al-Hamidy, 1998),hlm. 158.
[10] Erni Budiwanti, Islam..., hlm. 136. Juga John Ryan Bartholomew, Alif Lam Mim; Kearifan Masyarakat Sasak (Yogyakarta: Tiara Wacana, 2001), hlm.98.
[11] Zaki Yamani Athar, Kearifan Lokal Dalam Ajaran Islam Wetu Telu di Lombok, Ulumuna, Volume IX Edisi 15 Nomor 1 Januari-Juni 2005, hlm. 76.
[12] Fawaizul Umam dkk, Membangun Resistensi. Merawat Tradisi: Modal Sosial Komunitas Wetu Telu (Mataram: LKiM, 2007)

[13] Ahmad Zainul Hamdi, “Islam Lokal; Ruang Perjumpaan Universalitas dan Lokalitas” Ulumuna, Volume IX Edisi 15 Nomor 1 Januari-Juni 2005, hlm. 122-123.
[14] Amin Syukur, “Fiqh dalam Rentang Sejarah”, dalam Noor Ahmad dkk, Epistemologi Syara’; Mencari Format Baru Fiqh Indonesia (Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar, 2000), hlm. X.
[15] Karena secara sosiologis dan kultural, hukum Islam adalah hukum yang mengalir dan berurat berakar pada budaya masyarakat. Hal tersebut disebabkan karena fleksibelitas dan elastisitas yang dimiliki hukum Islam. Artinya, kendatipun hukum Islam tergolong hukum yang otonom –karena adanya otoritas Tuhan di dalamnya— akan tetapi dalam tataran implementasinya ia sangat aplicable dan acceptable dengan berbagai jenis budaya lokal. Karena itu, bisa dipahami bila dalam sejarahnya di sebagian daerah ia mampu menjadi kekuatan moral masyarakat (moral force of people) dalam berdialektika dengan realitas kehidupan. Baca Marzuki Wahid dan Rumadi, Fiqh Madzhab Negara (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 2001), hlm. 81.
[16] Ratno Lukito, Pergumulan Antara Hukum Islam Dan Adat di Indonesia (Jakarta: INIS, 1998), hlm. 19. Kajian lebih lengkap tentang qaul qadim dan qaul al-jadid-nya Imam Syafi’i baca Jaih Mubarok, Modifikasi Hukum Islam; Studi Tentang Qawl Qadim dan Qawl Jadid (Jakarta: Raja Grafindo Persada, 2002). Lihat juga Hafizh A. Masro, “Perubahan Hukum Islam (Suatu Analisis Sosiologi Atas Pendirian Asy-Syafi’i)” dalam Al-Mawarid, Edisi Ketiga 1995,hlm. 12-22.
[17] Husein Muhammad, Spiritualitas Kemanusiaan Perspektif Islam Pesantren (Yogyakarta: Pustaka Rihlah, 2006), hlm.159.
[18] Untuk pemikiran Hasbi baca Yudian Wahyudi, Hasbi’s Theory of Ijtihad in the Context of Indonesian Fiqh (Yogyakarta: Nawesea, 2007). Tentang Hazairin baca Hazairin, Hendak kemana Hukum Islam (Jakarta: Tintamas, 1976). Juga Mahsun Fuad, Hukum Islam Indonesia (Yogyakarta: LkiS, 2005).

[19] Nurcholish Madjid, “Islam dan Budaya Lokal: Masalah Akulturasi Timbal Balik”, dalam Islam Doktrin dan Peradaban (Jakarta: Paramadina, 1992) hlm. 542-554.

http://klik-dunk.blogspot.com/2008/12/pergumulan-islam-dan-budaya-sasak.html

Tuesday, May 17, 2011

Subud and the Javanese mystical tradition


Subud is one of hundreds of mystical movements (aliran kebatinan) which have grown significantly in postwar Indonesia. Along with other movements like Sumarah and Pangestu, Subud has attracted people from the West and has now spread to about eighty countries. Despite the fact that Subud leaders deny any relation to the Javanese mystical tradition, it is one of the tasks of this study to show that the greater part of Subud's conceptual apparatus is firmly rooted in the cultural history of Java. Under the banner of change and renewal, Subud presents a message which, fundamentally, is one of continuity in a society in transition. In the first part, the author presents an overall picture of the history of Javanese mysticism, particularly the concept of God, the view of man, and the techniques recommended in order to bridge the gap between God and man. In the second part, the rise of mystical movements in post-war Java is discussed, along with a presentation of three movements which attracted the West. The following chapters deal with a biography of the founder of Subud, the basic concepts of Subud and the meaning of the Subud spiritual exercise (latihan kejiwaan).

The final part contains an analysis of Subud theory and practice and its relation to the Javanese mystical tradition, as well as a psychological interpretation of the spiritual exercise.

Type Book
Author(s) Antoon Geels
PublisherRichmond: Curzon
Pub. year1997
Pag. and ill.262 p.; 23 cm
ISBN0-7007-0623-2
SeriesMonograph series / Nordic institute of Asian studies; 76
NotesIncludes index
Includes lit.refs
LanguageEnglish
Keywordsmysticism animism hinduism buddhism islam cultural history java indonesia

Monday, May 16, 2011

Subud: Its Origin and Aim

Pak SubuhSubud was founded by R.M. Muhammad Subuh Sumohadiwidjojo (1901 - 1987). Of noble Javanese descent Pak (a common Indonesian reverential name for father) Subuh went through a series of deep inner changes. In it he received what he termed the "Great Life Force", a manifestation of the Power of God. He received that he had been given this Power to transmit to anyone who asked for it in all sincerity. The inner contact received would lead that person eventually to a communication with his divine nature. He/she in turn would be able to transmit this contact (called: opening) to someone else at a later stage, etc.

The small groups that grew around Pak Subuh were combined after the war under the name of Subud Brotherhood. It reached the West in a remarkable way. Pak Subuh had told years before that an Englishman, who spoke many languages, would come and bear the torch to other countries. His prediction came true in 1950 at a time that Java was immerged in a struggle for freedom.
Husein Rofé (1922 - 2008)
Husein Rofé

Hardly any foreigner was allowed to enter the sultanate of Yogyakarta in Central Java, where Pak Subuh, also affectionately called Bapak (= father), lived. Yet, by a series of coincidences an English linguist, Husein Rofé (1922 - 2008), found himself in Yogyakarta in 1950. There he met Pak Subuh. He became convinced of his spiritual gifts and asked to be opened. The results were so impressive that he decided to devote himself to the spread of this inner contact.

He commenced a number of groups in Indonesia and later in Japan, Hong Kong, and Cyprus. In the latter group both Greeks and Turks participated, although the island was torn by conflicts between these sections of the population.

In 1957 Rofé met John G.Bennett who had a number of groups all over the world working along Gurdjieff's principles. Bennett remembered that Gurdjieff had intimated that one should watch for a teacher to come from the Dutch East Indies.
John Bennett
John G.Bennett

Bennett was so impressed by the state of consciousness that could be reached through the latihan in a short time that he advised his groups to test it.
(Photo Bennett at Subud Congress in Amersfoort, Netherlands 1963)


Subud has spread all over the world since. Yet, little is known about it as Pak Subuh indicated that Subud ought not be spread by any form of propaganda. Persons who are ready for it will be drawn to Subud members, or be presented with an opportunity to come in touch with a group.

What Subud is and is not

Subud is not a teaching; it does not have a ritual, nor a teacher. It is open to members of all races and beliefs. Pak Subuh being brought up in a Javanese mystical tradition has explained the process of inner receiving in terms of his own culture. An exposition in line with our present-day state of knowledge about man and the world he lives in is left to the members.

The process evoked by the latihan brings Subud members an inward view of their own nature, makes them understand their fellowman better. It brings them in a state of mind in which they can see clearly the right decisions to be made and the proper course to follow. Thus it will help to develop a different meaning to their lives and a deeper insight into their religious or spiritual believes.

The latihan

Subud is based on the experience that man can open himself to a divine power that can heal and purify him. At the centre of Subud activities is the practice of a spiritual exercise, the latihan. In it members give free expression to a process of purification. Tensions in body and mind will disappear resulting in an inner harmony permeating their being. In this state of wholeness a deep inner communication takes place. A silent prayer takes over dependent on the ability to surrender and yield to the spiritual life force. Eventually it will result in a regeneration of being, a wholeness of the fractured self, leading to a deeper spiritual life in tune with the Infinite.

Although countless other benefits - material, physical and mental - have been reported, a warning is given not to be guided by expectations.

Subud lays no claim on the individual. The object is not Subud, but man himself. Subud is an association of people dedicated to the wish to be guided from within. Its members will gain as much from Subud as they devote themselves to the art of living and receiving from within. The latihan will be instrumental in accomplishing this. It releases tensions continuously. After a latihan she/he will feel free - fresh to undertake anew the tasks on hand.

Membership

For a deep-going purification an inner stability is required. Therefore Subud is not open to everyone. Psychiatric patients are not advised to take part. Applicants should not be addicted to drugs, or alcohol. A member is expected to stand on his own feet - contribute to, instead of lean on the group.

Normally a waiting-period of three months is observed before a person can be opened. In this period of time the applicant's possible questions will be answered and he/she may meet members of the group. This is also a time for him/her to come to a definitive decision to be opened.

As pointed out, the results are strongly dependent on the way the individual is prepared to apply what is received by him in Subud to his daily activities. Pak Subuh has emphasized strongly that contact with our fellow man in our jobs, enterprises, duties, studies, art, etc. present the primary challenge to show and develop inner receiving. He has encouraged members to start enterprises together. A number of them exist, as do Subud charitable institutions all over the world.

Literature (See also available literature link below):

  • Bennett, J.G.: Concerning Subud (New York 1959)
  • Geels, Antoon: Subud and the Javanese mystical tradition (Curzon Press,Richmond,UK,1997)
  • Longcroft, H.: History of Subud (1901-1959)
  • Lyle, Robert: Subud (UK 1983)
  • Rofé, Husein: The Path of Subud (Berkeley 1988)
  • Subuh, Pak Muhammad Sumohadiwidjojo: Susila Budhi Dharma (1956)
  • Subuh, Pak Muhammad Sumohadiwidjojo: Autobiography (UK 1990)
  • Sullivan, Matthew B.: Living Religion in Subud (UK 1991)
  • Week, Istimah: The Man From The East (N.Y. 1996)

Links:

Video clips:


For further information please apply to the group nearest to you by checking the links above. Otherwise by sending an email to

For dutch readers:

For those who understand Dutch: Ook in Nederland bestaan groepen. Voor een nederlandse inleiding, adressen en verdere informatie klik op: website Subud Nederland

"Subud®" and the seven circles symbol are registered marks of the World Subud Association.
© text, photo's and video clips: Michael Rogge 2011. (Email address: manandu@NOSPAMxs4all.nl , delete 'NOSPAM' from the address.)
Latest revision date: 13 Oct. 2011

Retrieved from: http://wichm.home.xs4all.nl/subud1.html

Sunday, May 15, 2011

Javanese Mystical Movements

Introduction

North Indian shaman
North Indian shaman
There are numerous forms of mysticism. The majestic grandeur of nature evoked an intuitive awe in man and a feeling of unity. Some time in history members of the homo sapiens species began directing their attention inside themselves as they received indications of a magical and spiritual nature.
In early cultures groups formed around a person who seemed through some strange play of nature be possessed with extraordinary powers and insights. Some call them medicine man, or shamans.
In modern culture mysticism is seen as the practice of communion and adoration of man of his divine nature.
It takes all forms, though. On this page an introduction to Javanese mysticism, the origins of which little is known as its early adherents committed little to writing.

ANTHROPOLOGY AND JAVANESE MYSTICAL MOVEMENTS

During the last decades Javanese mysticism has become more and more of interest to anthropologists. They base their books, articles, doctoral theses, etc. partly on Dutch studies during their colonial past, partly on their own observations during field-work. Java is particularly fascinating because its culture bears traces of various religions.

'Kresna', wayang puppet
Wayang shadowplay puppet 
<I>Kresna</I>
The original religion of Java was animistic. Prevailing was the belief in powers, nature-spirits and souls of the deceased hidden in the unseen world. The selamatan is considered to be part of that folklore. This gathering is held at specific dates such as the third, seventh, fortieth, hundredth, and thousandth anniversary of the decease of a relative. The food eaten is meant to be a sacrifice for the soul of the dead person. After a thousand days the soul is supposed to have disintegrated or reincarnated. Prof.J.M.van der Kroef writes: "The homeostasis sought via the selamatan has an animistic background which is part of the Javanese cosmology: man is surrounded by spirits and deities, apparitions and mysterious supernatural forces, which, unless he takes the proper precautions, may disturb him or even plunge him into disaster."
Anthropologist Clifford Geertz divides the Javanese population in three main groups: the abangan, the priyayi and the santri. The Abangan (Agami Jawi) are nominal Muslim, but to a great extent they are guided by the ancient belief, the kejawen. Dr.S. de Jong: "Flora and fauna have like man a soul. The animal and vegetable soul is deeper sunk in material existence than the human soul. Therefore certain plants and animals may be harmful...The Godhead towers above in serene rest and offers no assistance. The abangan remain two possibilities: surrender -rela-, and worship -bekti. The primitive main concepts recur in 20th century mystical groups, may have never been absent."
In the 5th century Hinduism was introduced in Java and struck root. One thousand years later it was followed by Islam. The form of Islam that reached Java had already undergone Ishmaili Shi'ah influences. In Java it was again adapted to suit the existing Hindu and animistic elements. Sufi mysticism was embraced particularly, because it coincided with the existing way of thought. Sufi brotherhoods - tarekats - of the Sufi orders of Naqshabandiyya, Qadiriyya, and Shattariyya were formed and spread slowly.
Towards the middle of the 19th century opportunity arose for the Muslim population to have more contact with their fellow-believers. This led to a reform movement to rid Indonesian Islam of Hindu-Javanese elements. The Santri belong to this part of the population. They condemn such diversions as Wayang performances and selamatans. They reject the belief in the unity of man and God, in rasa(feeling) over akal(reason).

Eling, the deepest aspect of the inner life of the Javanese

Mysticism may be said to permeate Javanese life and consequently its vocabulary. Certain Javanese words are hard to understand for us in all their shades of meaning. One is "culture". Another is "jiwa," which may mean life, but also enthusiasm, spirit, inner self, thought, feeling, mentality, essence, and implication.
Eling (pronounced "ailing") is another one of these frequently used terms that defy translation. The word can only be understood by looking at its context. Javanese will understand it intuitively. It may mean "one of the jiwa's powers", "an ethical value", or "a level of depth in religious awareness".

Eling as one of the jiwa's powers

Basically eling means "remember." With reference to the powers of the jiwa the word covers everything ever experienced physically or spiritually. Next to the faculties of the jiwa of sight, hearing, speaking, and thinking, eling connects earlier experiences to what is being experienced now, making one aware that personal experience is an ongoing process. The I, who was in bad shape financially last year, is now making money. Memory underlies all personal identity. Not only that, it means being conscious of the consequences of our actions and our individual responsibility. Therefore, eling in its basic meaning is of great importance to the concept of self-awareness, considered of great importance in Javanese philosophy. Another meaning of "eling" is a return to consciousness after fainting.

Eling as an ethical value

When a person loses self control, as in sorrow, anger, or disorientation, the Javanese will usually advise that it is necessary to eling. In other words not be overwhelmed by feelings, mixed-up thoughts, or anger. In this case, eling means to regain self control. Self control to the Javanese is of high value, if not the highest. In this context, eling has more the meaning of consciousness than remembering. It refers to a high level of self-awareness that enables the individual to observe and control all movements of the self, both inner and outer - its actions, words, and thoughts. By being on guard we enable ourselves to remain in the state of eling
In his life the Javanese must be willing and able to see into the depths of everything he encounters and to remain always in a state of eling. It requires the highest level of awareness to observe and maintain control over all the movements of the outer and inner selves. This involves two-way traffic. Being in a state of eling his words and thoughts will attract attention as being important and thus will be heeded.
He will be prevented from falling for the five forbidden things: getting drunk, smoking, opium, stealing, gambling, and whoring. Not only that, he will be saved from an overly materialistic outlook of desiring only for his own benefit.
Being attracted to inward and outward pleasures is in conflict with eling and prevent the Javanese from staying in that state. That is why he is advised to eat and sleep less in order to reduce the conflict in himself caused by the nafsu (passions). This will help him to become more aware and capable of self control.
Other dangers are lying, boasting, and hypocrisy - all ways of showing off the ego and overstepping the boundaries of self control. A Javanese saying states it well: "We have to learn to feel pain when we are glad and gladness when we are in pain." Then we can be said to have become eling.
The method for achieving this is based on inner quietness.

Eling as a level of depth in religious awareness

In this context eling refers to a high level of religious awareness or experience. This is based on meneng (being silent) and wening meaning clarity, purity, transparency. This requires that the role of the ego be reduced so that the person is no longer vulnerable to arrogance, pride, outward pleasures, or material gain. If the aspiring Javanese trains himself by means of silence, he will see more clearly with his inner eyes, making it possible to see the essence of things, to remove the veil of mere appearances and temporary values. Once he reaches this stage of eling he will draw closer to God. There will no longer be a separation between subject and object, microcosm and macrocosm, or creature and Creator. The sweetness will no longer be separate from the honey.

At a still higher level of eling all names and forms will vanish. There will be only emptiness. This is called the experience of ilang (lost), suwung (vacant), sirna (gone), komplang (empty), also called "dead in life". It requires a strong faith to overcome all obstacles and fear.
To conclude, Eling is a much used word in Javanese because of its close connection to the deepest attitude of the Javanese to his inner life. It is operative not only in religion, but also in everyday life and in their ethical norms. So religious and mystical life, which is usually considered exclusive and individual, permeates the way Javanese people live from day to day. The inner levels neng, ning, and eling are not reserved for religion and mystical observances alone, but are embedded in the Javanese way of life. They are in the background of their dealing with ordinary problems involving ethics, education, economics, philosophy, security, and politics. The Javanese try to solve problems with a clear eye and an inner calm that arises from their deepest inner attitude: eling.
(Subagio Sastrowardoyo, (free) translation Mansur Medeiros)
How a good Javanese should deport himself properly against the background of mysticism has been laid down in two books in the nineteenth century: Wulangreh (Lessons in behaviour), by Paku Buwana IV) and Wedhatama (Excellent teaching), by R.Ng. Ranggawarsita. Both are very similar short works in tembang (fairly modern Javanese song lyrics). They are still being read and reprinted.

Priyayi

The above observations are particularly true for the priyayi type Javanese. To this group belong the descendants of the aristocracy of the Javanese courts of Yogyakarta and Surakarta, who the Dutch won over to become members of the appointive civil service in colonial times. Nowadays they constitute the intelligentsia of Java. They have their roots in the Hindu-Javanese courts of pre- colonial times. A noble and pure character is attributed to them. They were the bearers of the mystic court-traditions taught to them by highly revered guru's.
Wayang shadowplay performance
Priyayi conserved and cultivated the art of dance, drama, music and poetry. Sunan (=king) Kalidjogovan(also called Kalidjaga) is credited by some to have given the ancient Wayang play its present form. Before it was part of the Javanese ancestor-worship. The shadow figures represent the spirits of the dead. Subsequently the Hindu epics Mahabharta and Ramayana were introduced and integrated in Wayang performances.
The language used is often based on Sanskrit words: Susila = chaste,ethical; Budhi = Buddhi = intelligence; Dharma = norm, customary observance (J.Gonda).
In mysticism, as we have seen above, these words take on a different meaning. To live according to one's dharma and the rules of social order is to fulfil "the will of God"(kodrat).
In Javanese mysticism one learns that it is good to honour one's superiors...justice and well-being are expected to flow from above, to originate from a bapak who in his turn derives his power for protection from a higher bapak, etc., until one reaches the realm of supernature and the leader "by the grace of God"
.

All of nature is endowed with souls. Prof.van der Kroef notes: Monistic identification is carried to great lengths: vegetable and animal "essences" shape human personality and destiny (e.g. after eating goat's meat "the goat's tendency to get lost will be manifested in the man as the desire in all circumstances to follow his own impulses") and pantheistic unity is accepted as a matter of course (e.g. "in the world of fishes there are many that serve God with faith and, moreover, are not neglectful in the manner of their prayers...").

Two characteristics of Javanese mysticism

The Javanese mystical tradition is known for its syncretism. In the course of its history it absorbed all the religious traditions that reached Java and gave it its own interpretation.
The aim of the Javanese mystical tradition is that of experiencing unity with God. Among the techniques to achieve this is the dihkr (repetitive prayer), fasting, sleep deprivation, and withdrawal from the world. The purpose of ascetism being purification, facilitating direct communication with the divine world.

Dissent between mystical movements

Between the three groups of abangan, priyayi and santri had always been an area of tension. The Santri accused the other two groups of mixing Islam with Javanism. Prof.van der Kroef: "Conflict, even violence ... has repeatedly occurred between adherents of these groups, frequently involving a clash between provisions of the local adat (customary law) and hukum (Islamic law)...".

The mystical Baduys

In West Java, near the city of Rangkasbitung, South Bantam, lies the mysterious Baduy territory. Outsiders may not enter it. The Baduys guard zealously the mysteries of Javanese mysticism from the dawn of Javanese history. They were respected and consulted by the Javanese Sultans on East Java in olden times as well as the recent rulers of Indonesia. Their territory has no direct goverment interference and as money is taboo there no taxes are levied there.
In the heart of Baduy country, enclosed by a jungle, lies the megalitic sanctuary Sasaka Domas, or Many Stones. No one is allowed to come near it.
The Baduys are regarded as one of the last surviving mandala communities on Java. Members of these communities lived an ascetic life, based on guide lines of the old Sundanese -Hindu/Buddhistic/animistic beliefs, known as Kejawen. It withstood the Islamizing of the country. The Baduy call their religion Sunda Wiwitan [earliest Sundanese]. They were almost totally free of Islamic elements (except those imposed over the past 20 years), they also display very few Hindu characteristics.
Based on a system of taboos, the Baduy religion is animistic. They believe spirits inhabit the rocks, trees, streams and other inanimate objects. These spirits do good or evil depending on one’s observance of the taboos. Thousands of taboos apply to every aspect of daily life.Their lives are governed by interdictions as to possessing property, keeping cattle, laying out sawahs (rice fields), cultivating new products, etc. Their priest-kings are not allowed to leave the territory, to pass the night outside their village, or to communicate with outsiders. The Baduy grow all their own food and make their own tools and clothes. They reject any introduction of artifacts from outside.
Outsiders are not allowed to enter the inner domain which is inhabited by forty families dressed mostly in white. Population is strictly limited. When the limit is exceeded, the surplus population is sent away to live outside the community as Outer Baduy. Though they try to observe the taboos of the Inner Baduy, there is much pressure on them to relax the rules. Even so, they maintain their identity as Baduy to a remarkable degree.
The Indonesian government has attempted to socialize them, and this effort was claimed to have led to a greater openness among the Baduy to the idea of communicating with the outside world. It remains to be seen if this opening up will not lead to a loss of this precious enclave of Javanese mysticism.

Postwar spiritual movements

In colonial times the Dutch Government kept a sharp eye on these movements including the tarekat Sufi brotherhoods who often stirred up uprisings fired by messianic and millenarian expectations. The Indonesian Government followed this policy because it was afraid of communist infiltration into these groups. To keep an eye on them it required the mystical movements (aliran kepercayaan ) to be registered.
In 1947 Subud was registered in Yogyakarta as being founded in Semarang in 1932.
The Bureau for Supervision of Religious Movements (Pakem) under the Ministry of Religious affairs had in 1964 360 movements registered. In 1982 there were 93 groups with in total 123,570 members in Central Java alone.
Pangestu claims to have 50.000 members, Sapta Darma 10.000.
Some aliran kebatinan (another name for spiritual movements) who lean towards Islam dislike being equated with the more obscure Javanese sects who are not averse towards guna-guna, Javanese black magical practices. These groups are formed around a teacher, who claims to have received enlightment (Wahyu).
Hundreds of such groups are known to exist. Their gurus usually claim originality for their revelation or intuitive insight while rejecting knowledge from books or the influence of tradition. When the guru dies, the group often dissolves.

Sumarah
A dissertation (D.G.Howe) and a thesis (Paul Stange) have been devoted to this brotherhood. Its founder, Sukinohartono, was opened by Subud helper Wignosupartono. The latter was known for his healing powers and was also the first person to be opened by Pak Subuh, founder of Subud. Sukinohartono had himself a revelation thereafter in 1932. He underwent a series of experiences from 1935 until 1937. After an intense cleansing Sukino was given to understand that he would receive guidance through hakiki and the angel Gabriel. He was taken in sequence through nine spiritual stages. Stange: "The dimensions he passed through parallel the realms discussed in classical mystical literature, mirror the descriptions found in wayang and Sufism."
Sukinohartono reported a.o. encounters with Jesus Christ and Prophet Muhammad. In 1949 Sukinohartono had another revelation. Neighbours related that they had seen a wahyu celestial light fall on Sukino's house during the night. Sukino also received "clear guidance to the effect that he had to lead humanity toward total submission to God."
In Sumarah there were two levels of practice: kanoman and kasepuhan. Kanoman exercises took three principal forms: karaga, meaning automatic movement; karasa: sensitizing of intuition; and kasuara: spontaneous speech. These were understood as being the result of the movement of God's power within the candidate.
For elders and those mature in spirit was a second initiation: the kasepuan silent meditation. The latter became the standard practice. The kanoman exercise came in disregard after 1949. The same applied to the separation of the sexes and facing Mecca during the exercise. In the early days there was also an intense "checking" of members' progress.
On their website Sumarah is explained as follows: "Sumarah is a philosophy of life and a form of MEDITATION that originally comes from Java, Indonesia. The practice is based on developing sensitivity and acceptance through DEEP RELAXATION of body, feelings and mind. Its aim is to create inside our self the inner space and the silence necessary for the true self to manifest and to speak to us. The word Sumarah means total surrender, a confident and conscious surrender of the partial ego to the universal self. The total surrender is to Life."
Recently meditation workshops all over the world have sprung up. See Sumarah Meditation International Network links below.
Subud
Subud has a place apart amongst these kepercayaan. In most movements meditation is being practised. Subud appears to lean most to the Sufi tarekat tradition, yet bears santri and priyayi influences. Their spiritual excercise, the latihan, appears to be quite unique, however. I have yet to come across a similar exercise in the descriptions of other disciplines. Of course, if one were to term the latihan "ecstatic" several other parallels may be found in other countries and in history (early Christianity).

Presentday Javanese mysticism

As seen above Indonesian mysticism developed in many forms, some clouding its deep inner essence.
It is regrettable that younger Indonesian generations seem to have lost interest to develop their innate gift to transcend sensory reality to tune into their deepest spiritual nature, especially in the present strive between religious factions. Syncretism, characteristic of Javanese mysticism, is known to bridge outer differences and foster understanding between all people.
May be the day will come that the tremendous value of Javanese mysticism will be rediscovered. Its great tradition may need to be transplanted in order to be brought into blossom again.

Incense, flowers are powerful communication tools

If the above gives the impression that mysticism has disappeared from Javanese life the Jakarta Post ran a series of articles on mysticism in August 2002. Some of its contents:
Mysticism has become a part of modern people's lives. Those seeking advice from psychics include educated people and even those who are religious, such as Minister of Religious Affairs Said Agil Al Munawar. Less than two weeks ago, the minister made headlines when he ordered a treasure hunt at a protected heritage site in Bogor, West Java, following the advice of a psychic. [In Indonesian, "psychic" = "kejiwaan."]
Agil said that if the treasure was found, it would be able to cover the country's foreign debt of US$130 billion. The Jakarta Post is running a series of stories surrounding mysticism. This story and a related one on page 8 on August 26,2002, were written by Muninggar Sri Saraswati. While cellular phones and the Internet are the most popular methods of communication by urbanites, there are some who choose kemenyan (incense) and flowers. Some people in Java burn incense and put flowers sprayed with perfume to communicate with spirits of the dead to gain peace of mind, solve problems in life or cure diseases.
The employee of a private company in the Kuningan area of South Jakarta, Soenaryo told The Jakarta Post that he started seeing a spiritualist five years ago when he was facing a problem at his company.
"Nobody could help me at the time. A friend of mine suggested that I see a spiritualist and I did. The spiritualist told me that I have to burn incense and put a plate of flowers and two eggs in my room while I meditated," Soenaryo said.
Although he felt a bit awkward, he obeyed the order and requested the spirits of his ancestors to ask God to help him. Amazingly, Soenaryo found a solution to the problem and he was promoted. He has since become a loyal client of the spiritualist's, who lives in Paseban, Central Jakarta. He has also regularly provided offerings, particularly when he has a problem in life.
"It's only a medium to God, which you might think is strange," said Soenaryo, adding that he makes the offerings every kliwon, or once every Javanese five-day week. Another customer, Warti, told the Post that she bought incense and flowers for her employer, a middle-aged woman who is a banker.
"She has given offerings and burned incense for two years, when her marriage was in trouble. She usually does it in the morning. She also takes baths with petals in the water at night," said the maid, who buys the items for her every Friday.
Marni, an incense and flower vendor, said that business had been brisk since she opened shop 10 years ago, with most people buying the items usually for funeral rituals.
"The number of people buying these items for mystical purposes started to increase during the economic crisis," she said, referring to the Asian crisis which hit the country in 1997.
Another vendor at Rawa Belong market, West Jakarta, agreed. "There are not as many people buying flowers and incense for mystical purposes as those who buy them for funeral rituals, but they are loyal customers. They come once a week or twice a month," said Tedi, who has been in the business for over eight years.

Trances in modern Indonesian society

Spiritual fervour - going into a trance - is a rather common phenomenon in Indonesia, particularly among factory workers.
All over the Indonesian archipelago there are reports of schoolchildren, young women and factory workers going into mass trances or speaking in tongues.
National television showed in February 2008 eleven students and five teachers going into mass trance in a classroom. About 50 female workers at a garment factory near Jakarta were reported to have gone into a collective trance in June 2007, weeping and jerking their bodies around.
Religion, education and development have done little to halt widespread acceptance of the supernatural in Indonesia. In Indonesia, trance is tied up with culture, explained Lidia Laksana Hidajat, from the psychology faculty of Jakarta's Atma Jaya University.
Lina, 23, said she has been possessed many times in the past six years, always by the same "jinn" or evil spirit. Its face is exactly the same face as my older sister but the body is hard to make out. It calls my name but if I follow it, it disappears, she said. Lina said that mass trances were so common at the Malang cigarette factory, where she worked, that she quit eventually .
Indonesian media reported a group trance among workers at Bentoel's cigarette factory in Malang, Java, in March 2006. Hidajat interviewed 30 of the affected women, who say they were sitting in rows in a long hall, rolling the cigarettes by hand when it happened. They were working in silence. That's one of the requirements of a trance to happen - it's usually quiet and when they are engaged in monotonous activity, she said.
Suddenly, one of the workers started screaming and her body went stiff. The one next to her started crying and went stiff too, triggering a domino effect. A Muslim leader was summoned, but his prayers had no effect. The exhausted women fell asleep and when they awoke they remembered nothing.
Hidajat found there were common factors between the trance victims she interviewed.
Often they are people who are very religious or under pressure. They were also from low socio-economic backgrounds, she said.
Eko Susanto Marsoeki, the director of Malang's Lawang Psychiatric Hospital, said overwork was closely linked to mass trance incidents in factories. Often it is a form of protest that will not be dealt with too harshly, he said.
When more than 30 students at Kalimantan's Pahandut Palangka Raya High School fell into a trance in November, they blamed a spirit in a nearby tree. During the morning flag-raising ceremony, one of the girls started screaming and couldn't move. Soon her friends joined in until more than 30 of them were screaming and fainting, the deputy principal, Friskila said. Some of the girls woke from the trance after a student played a Muslim prayer ring tone on her mobile phone. Others were taken by their parents to local witchdoctors.
Friskila, however, favours a less superstitious explanation.
They are bored, tired and then this happened, she said. They all got a day off school.

Literature:
  • Beatty, Andrew: Varieties of Javanese Religion : An Anthropological account (Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology, March 1999) Becker, Judith: Gamelan Stories Tantrism Islam and Aesthetics in Central Java (1993)
  • Geels, Antoon: Subud and the Javanese mystical tradition (1997)
  • Geertz,Clifford: "The Religion of Java".(1960)
  • Gonda,J.:"Sanskrit in Indonesia" (New Delhi 1973)
  • Hadiwijono, Harun: "Man in the Present Javanese Mysticism" (Thesis, Amsterdam, 1968)
  • Headley, Stephen C.: From Cosmogonony to exorcism in a Javanese Genesis: The spilt seed (2000)
  • Howe,D.G.: "Sumarah, a study of the art of living" (Doctoral dissertation, Chapel Hill 1980) Howell, Julia Day. 1989. ``States of Consciousness and Javanese Ecstatics.'' In 'Creating Indonesian Cultures', edited by P. Alexander. Sydney: Oceania Press. (1989)
  • Kartapradja, Kamil : Aliran kebatinan dan kepercayaan di Indonesia, Jakarta: Yayasan Masagung.(1985)
  • Kroef, J.M.van der: "New Religious Sects in Java"(1959)
  • Lewis,I.M.:"Ecstatic Religion"(1971)
  • Mulder Niels: Mistisisme. Jawa-Ideologi di Indonesia (Yogyakarta 2001)
  • Mulder, Niels: "Mysticism and Everyday Life in Contemporary Java" (Singapore 1978)
  • Mulder, Niels: "Mysticism in Java" (Amsterdam, 1997)
  • Rofé, H.: "The Path of Subud" (1959,1988)
  • Sitompul, P.P.: "Susila Budhi Dharma. Subud - International Mystic movement of Indonesia" (Dissertation, Claremont 1974)
  • Stange, Paul: "The Sumarah movement in Javanese mysticism " (Thesis, Madison 1980)
  • Paul Stange: The evolution of Sumarah (revised and updated thesis in a 1.3MB pdf file)
  • Wilson, Ian Douglas: The politics of inner power: The practice of Pencak Silat in West-Java (thesis)
  • Woodward R.: Islam in Java. Normative Piety and Mysticism in the Sultanate of Yogyakarta (The University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1989)
The abovementioned doctoral documents are available from University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor MI 48106 and London WC1R 4EJ, UK

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Sunday, April 17, 2011

New Religious Sects in Java

van der Kroef, Justus M. 1961. "New Religious Sects in Java". Far Eastern Survey. 30 (2): 18-25. 

Early in 1952 the Indonesian government's Bureau of Religious Affairs in West Java announced the appearance of 29 new religious sects in the area since the country formally became independent in 1949. In the middle of 1956 the Religious Affairs Bureau in Jogjakarta, Central Java, announced that there were 63 religious sects on the island of Java, other than adherents of Islam, Roman Catholicism and various Protestant denominations; of these 35 were in Central Java, 22 in West Java, and 6 in East Java. By the middle of 1960, when the Indonesian government had already expressed its official alarm over the proliferation of religious sects, Deputy Attorney General Kadarusman declared that there were hundreds of such sects throughout Indonesia, while at about the same time a spokesman for the Religious Affairs Bureau of East Java stated that there were, up to the end of 1959 some 100 sects in East Java province alone. The total membership of these sects is difficult to determine since their organizational structure is so very unstable and many of their adherents continue to identify themselves with one of the principal religions, such as Islam, but a quarter of a million is probably a conservative estimate. Spokesmen for the various sects have tended to exaggerate the number of followers. One provincial leader of the Pangestu movement is reported to have claimed more than 10,000 members throughout Java late in 1958. In contrast it is known that such comparatively fleeting sects as the Agama Pantjasila in West Java rarely had more than two to three hundred disciples. 

Whatever the size of their following, the rapid spread of the sects themselves is one of the most important phenomena in Javanese society today. The following analysis will focus first on the leadership structure of Javanese religious life, because only in terms of this structure can the dynamics of sect formation today be understood. Secondly, a brief content analysis of the sects will be attempted. Thirdly, the organizational structure will be sketched, and finally a word will be said about some of the contemporary processes which have encouraged sect proliferation, in the light of the present policy of the Indonesian government toward the sects.

Sunday, March 6, 2011

Journal Articles

  •  Alim, Muhammad Ghufron Zainul. 1995. "Harakat al-Tawa'if al-Batiniyyah al-Indunisiyyah qabla Indiwa'iha tahta Ri'ayati Wizarati al-Tarbiyah wa al-Thaqafah". Studia Islamika, 2 (2): 147-163.
  • KIEV A, and JL FRANCIS. 1964. "SUBUD AND MENTAL ILLNESS; PSYCHIATRIC ILLNESS IN A RELIGIOUS SECT.". American Journal of Psychotherapy. 18: 66-78. 
  • van der Kroef, Justus M. 1961. "New Religious Sects in Java". Far Eastern Survey. 30 (2): 18-25.
  • Peacock, James L. and Tim Pettyjohn. 1995. "Fundamentalisms Narrated: Muslim, Christian, and Mystical". In: 1995. Fundamentalism comprehended. Ed. Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby. (The Fundamentalism project; v. 5). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Pp. 115-134. 
  • Rachmadani, Arnis. 2011. "Local wisdom tradisi perkawinan Islam Wetu Telu sebagai perekat kerukunan masyarakat Bayan". Harmoni : Jurnal Multikutural & Multireligius. 10 (3): 2011. 
  • Steenbrink, Karel. 1993. "Indonesian politics and a Muslim theology of religions: 1965-1990". Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations. 4 (2): 223-246. 
  • Urlich, Stephen C. 2005. "Evaluating the Charismatic Group Subud: Javanese Mysticism in the West". Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice. 9 (3): 161-172.

Sunday, February 6, 2011

Book & Book Chapter

  1. Avonius, Leena. 2004. Reforming Wetu Telu: Islam, adat, and the promises of regionalism in post-New Order Lombok. Helsinki: Yliopistopaino. 
  2. Batubara, Chuzaimah. 1999. Islam and mystical movements in post-independence Indonesia : Susila Budhi Dharma (Subud) and its doctrines. McGill University. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=29814. 
  3. Budiwanti, Erni. 1900. Religion of the Sasak: an ethnographic study of the impact of islamisation on the Wetu Telu of Lombok. Thesis (Ph. D.)--Monash University, 1997.
  4. Budiwanti, Erni. 2000. Islam Sasak: Wetu Telu versus Waktu Lima. Yogyakarta: Diterbitkan oleh LKiS Yogyakarta bekerjasama dengan Yayasan Adikarya IKAPI dan Ford Foundation. 
  5. Cederroth, Sven. 1992. A sacred cloth religion?: ceremonies of the big feast among Wetu Telu Sasak (Lombok, Indonesia). Copenhagen, Denmark: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies. 
  6. Geels, Antoon. 1997. Subud and the Javanese mystical tradition. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon.  
  7. Howe, David Gordon. 1982. Sumarah: a study of the art of living. Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
  8. Isma'il, Ibnu Qoyim. 2003. Agama & pandangan hidup: studi tentang "local religion" di beberapa wilayah Indonesia : studi tentang Kaharingan di masyarakat Dayak, Kalimanan [sic] dan Sunda Wiwitan di masyarakat Badui, Banten. Jakarta: Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia, Puslit. Kemasyarakatan dan Kebudayaan. 
  9. Isma'il, Ibnu Qoyim. 2004. Religi lokal & pandangan hidup: kajian tentang masyarakat penganut religi Tolotang dan Patuntung, Sipelebegu (Permalim), Samimisme, dan agama Jawa Sunda. Jakarta: Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia, Pusat Penelitian Kemasyarakatan dan Kebudayaan.  
  10. Kafrawi. 1970. The path of Subud a study of 20th century Javanese mysticism founded by Muhammad Subuh Sumohadiwidjohjo
  11. Laffan, Michael Francis. 2011. The makings of Indonesian Islam: orientalism and the narration of a Sufi past. Princeton [N.J.]: Princeton University Press. 
  12. Lim, Lisa Sastrawaty. 1991. Surveying Subud in the U.S.A. Thesis (M.A.)--University of Kansas, American Studies, 1991.  
  13. Mulder, J. A. Niels. 1974. Saminism and Buddhism: a note on a field to a Samin community. Bruxelles: Centre d'Etude du Sud-Est Asiatique et de l'Extrême-Orient. 
  14. Patji, Abdul Rachman. 2005. Agama dan pandangan hidup: kajian tentang religi lokal di Bali dan Lombok. Menteng, Jakarta: Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia.  
  15. Patji, Abdul Rachman. 2006. Agama, religi & kepercayaan lokal: penelitian di Jawa Timur dan Nusa Tenggara Timur. Menteng, Jakarta: Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia.
  16. Patji, Abdul Rachman, Muhamad Hisyam, and Sihol Farida Tambunan. 2007. Agama & pandangan hidup: studi tentang religi lokal di Indonesia : wilayah Maluku Utara. Menteng, Jakarta: Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia. 
  17. Picard, Michel, and Rémy Madinier. 2011. The Politics of Religion in Indonesia Syncretism, Orthodoxy, and Religious Contention in Java and Bali. Hoboken: Taylor & Francis. http://public.eblib.com/EBLPublic/PublicView.do?ptiID=801868.  
  18. Sitompul, Pangarisan Paul. 1974. Susila Budhi Dharma Subud: international mystic movement of Indonesia. Claremont, Calif: Sitompul.  
  19. Stange, Paul. 1980. The Sumarah movement in Javanese mysticism. Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Wisconsin--Madison, 1980.  
  20. Steenbrink, Karel A. 1999. "The Pancasila ideology and an Indonesian Muslim theology of religions." Jacques Waardenburg (ed.). Muslim perceptions of other religions: a historical survey. Oxford University Press, pp. 280-296.
  21. Sumohadiwidjojo, Muhammad Subuh. 1961. The meaning of Subud; four talks given in London, August 1959. New York: Dharma Book Co. 
  22. Sumohadiwidjojo, Muhammad Subuh. 1984. Subud and the active life: talks given at the Subud International Congress, 1959. Kent, England: Subud Publications International.
  23. Widiyanto, Asfa. 2012. Ritual and leadership in the Subud Brotherhood and the Tariqa Qadiriyya wa Naqshbandiyyah. Berlin: EB-Verlag.  
  24. Zaelani, Kamarudin, Suhaimi Syamsuri, and Satriawan. 2007. Satu agama banyak Tuhan: melacak akar sejarah teologi waktu telu. Mataram: Pantheon Media Pressindo. 
  25. Zuhdi, Muhammad Harfin. 2009. Parokialitas adat terhadap pola keberagaman komunitas Islam Wetu Telu di Bayan, Lombok. Ciputat, Jakarta: Lembaga Penelitian UIN Jakarta.